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Contributors:Allen Brizee.
Summary:
This resource outlines the generally accepted structure for introductions, body paragraphs, and conclusions in an academic argument paper. Keep in mind that this resource contains guidelines and not strict rules about organization. Your structure needs to be flexible enough to meet the requirements of your purpose and audience.

Introductions, Body Paragraphs, and Conclusions for an Argument Paper

The following sections outline the generally accepted structure for an academic argument paper. Keep in mind that these are guidelines and that your structure needs to be flexible enough to meet the requirements of your purpose and audience.
You may also use the following Purdue OWL resources to help you with your argument paper:

• Creating a Thesis Statement
• Establishing Arguments
• Organizing Your Argument
• Organizing Your Argument Slide Presentation
• Logic in Argumentative Writing
• Paragraphs and Paragraphing
• Transitions and Transitional Devices

Introduction

The introduction is the broad beginning of the paper that answers three important questions:

1. What is this?
2. Why am I reading it?
3. What do you want me to do?

You should answer these questions by doing the following:

1. Set the context –provide general information about the main idea, explaining the situation so the reader can make sense of the topic and the claims you make and support
2. State why the main idea is important –tell the reader why he or she should care and keep reading. Your goal is to create a compelling, clear, and convincing essay people will want to read and act upon
3. State your thesis/claim –compose a sentence or two stating the position you will support with logos (sound reasoning: induction, deduction), pathos (balanced emotional appeal), and ethos (author credibility).

For exploratory essays, your primary research question would replace your thesis statement so that the audience understands why you began your inquiry. An overview of the types of sources you explored might follow your research question.
If your argument paper is long, you may want to forecast how you will support your thesis by outlining the structure of your paper, the sources you will consider, and the opposition to your position. You can forecast your paper in many different ways depending on the type of paper you are writing. Your forecast could read something like this:

First, I will define key terms for my argument, and then I will provide some background of the situation. Next I will outline the important positions of the argument and explain why I support one of these positions. Lastly, I will consider opposing positions and discuss why these positions are outdated. I will conclude with some ideas for taking action and possible directions for future research.

When writing a research paper, you may need to use a more formal, less personal tone. Your forecast might read like this:

This paper begins by providing key terms for the argument before providing background of the situation. Next, important positions are outlined and supported. To provide a more thorough explanation of these important positions, opposing positions are discussed. The paper concludes with some ideas for taking action and possible directions for future research.

Ask your instructor about what tone you should use when providing a forecast for your paper.
These are very general examples, but by adding some details on your specific topic, a forecast will effectively outline the structure of your paper so your readers can more easily follow your ideas.

Thesis checklist

Your thesis is more than a general statement about your main idea. It needs to establish a clear position you will support with balanced proofs (logos, pathos, ethos). Use the checklist below to help you create a thesis.
This section is adapted from Writing with a Thesis: A Rhetoric Reader by David Skwire and Sarah Skwire:
Make sure you avoid the following when creating your thesis:

• A thesis is not a title: Homes and schools (title) vs. Parents ought to participate more in the education of their children (good thesis).
• A thesis is not an announcement of the subject: My subject is the incompetence of the Supreme Court vs. The Supreme Court made a mistake when it ruled in favor of George W. Bush in the 2000 election.
• A thesis is not a statement of absolute fact: Jane Austen is the author of Pride and Prejudice.
• A thesis is not the whole essay: A thesis is your main idea/claim/refutation/problem-solution expressed in a single sentence or a combination of sentences.
• Please note that according to the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, Seventh Edition, "A thesis statement is a single sentence that formulates both your topic and your point of view" (Gibaldi 42). However, if your paper is more complex and requires a thesis statement, your thesis may require a combination of sentences.

Make sure you follow these guidelines when creating your thesis:

• A good thesis is unified:
  
  • NOT: Detective stories are not a high form of literature, but people have always been fascinated by them, and many fine writers have experimented with them

(floppy). vs.

•  
  • BETTER: Detective stories appeal to the basic human desire for thrills (concise).
• A good thesis is specific:
  
  • NOT: James Joyce’s Ulysses is very good. vs.
  • BETTER: James Joyce’s Ulysses helped create a new way for writers to deal with the unconscious.
• Try to be as specific as possible (without providing too much detail) when creating your thesis:
  
  • NOT: James Joyce’s Ulysses helped create a new way for writers to deal with the unconscious. vs.
  • BETTER: James Joyce’s Ulysses helped create a new way for writers to deal with the unconscious by utilizing the findings of Freudian psychology and introducing the techniques of literary stream-of-consciousness.

Quick Checklist:
_____ The thesis/claim follows the guidelines outlined above
_____ The thesis/claim matches the requirements and goals of the assignment
_____ The thesis/claim is clear and easily recognizable
_____ The thesis/claim seems supportable by good reasoning/data, emotional appeal

Contributors:Allen Brizee.
Summary:
This resource outlines the generally accepted structure for introductions, body paragraphs, and conclusions in an academic argument paper. Keep in mind that this resource contains guidelines and not strict rules about organization. Your structure needs to be flexible enough to meet the requirements of your purpose and audience.

Body Paragraphs

Body paragraphs: Moving from general to specific information

Your paper should be organized in a manner that moves from general to specific information. Every time you begin a new subject, think of an inverted pyramid - The broadest range of information sits at the top, and as the paragraph or paper progresses, the author becomes more and more focused on the argument ending with specific, detailed evidence supporting a claim. Lastly, the author explains how and why the information she has just provided connects to and supports her thesis (a brief wrap up or warrant).

Image Caption: Moving from General to Specific Information

The four elements of a good paragraph (TTEB)

A good paragraph should contain at least the following four elements: Transition, Topic sentence, specific Evidence and analysis, and a Brief wrap-up sentence (also known as a warrant) –TTEB!

1. A Transition sentence leading in from a previous paragraph to assure smooth reading. This acts as a hand off from one idea to the next.
2. A Topic sentence that tells the reader what you will be discussing in the paragraph.
3. Specific Evidence and analysis that supports one of your claims and that provides a deeper level of detail than your topic sentence.
4. A Brief wrap-up sentence that tells the reader how and why this information supports the paper’s thesis. The brief wrap-up is also known as the warrant. The warrant is important to your argument because it connects your reasoning and support to your thesis, and it shows that the information in the paragraph is related to your thesis and helps defend it.

Supporting evidence (induction and deduction)

Induction

Induction is the type of reasoning that moves from specific facts to a general conclusion. When you use induction in your paper, you will state your thesis (which is actually the conclusion you have come to after looking at all the facts) and then support your thesis with the facts. The following is an example of induction taken from Dorothy U. Seyler’s Understanding Argument:
Facts:
There is the dead body of Smith. Smith was shot in his bedroom between the hours of 11:00 p.m. and 2:00 a.m., according to the coroner. Smith was shot with a .32 caliber pistol. The pistol left in the bedroom contains Jones’s fingerprints. Jones was seen, by a neighbor, entering the Smith home at around 11:00 p.m. the night of Smith’s death. A coworker heard Smith and Jones arguing in Smith’s office the morning of the day Smith died.
Conclusion: Jones killed Smith.
Here, then, is the example in bullet form:

• Conclusion: Jones killed Smith
• Support: Smith was shot by Jones’ gun, Jones was seen entering the scene of the crime, Jones and Smith argued earlier in the day Smith died.
• Assumption: The facts are representative, not isolated incidents, and thus reveal a trend, justifying the conclusion drawn.

Deduction

When you use deduction in an argument, you begin with general premises and move to a specific conclusion. There is a precise pattern you must use when you reason deductively. This pattern is called syllogistic reasoning (the syllogism). Syllogistic reasoning (deduction) is organized in three steps:

1. Major premise
2. Minor premise
3. Conclusion

In order for the syllogism (deduction) to work, you must accept that the relationship of the two premises lead, logically, to the conclusion. Here are two examples of deduction or syllogistic reasoning:
Socrates

1. Major premise: All men are mortal.
2. Minor premise: Socrates is a man.
3. Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.

Lincoln

1. Major premise: People who perform with courage and clear purpose in a crisis are great leaders.
2. Minor premise: Lincoln was a person who performed with courage and a clear purpose in a crisis.
3. Conclusion: Lincoln was a great leader.

So in order for deduction to work in the example involving Socrates, you must agree that (1) all men are mortal (they all die); and (2) Socrates is a man. If you disagree with either of these premises, the conclusion is invalid. The example using Socrates isn’t so difficult to validate. But when you move into more murky water (when you use terms such as courage, clear purpose, and great), the connections get tenuous.
For example, some historians might argue that Lincoln didn’t really shine until a few years into the Civil War, after many Union losses to Southern leaders such as Robert E. Lee.
The following is a clear example of deduction gone awry:

1. Major premise: All dogs make good pets.
2. Minor premise: Doogle is a dog.
3. Conclusion: Doogle will make a good pet.

If you don’t agree that all dogs make good pets, then the conclusion that Doogle will make a good pet is invalid.
Enthymemes
When a premise in a syllogism is missing, the syllogism becomes an enthymeme. Enthymemes can be very effective in argument, but they can also be unethical and lead to invalid conclusions. Authors often use enthymemes to persuade audiences. The following is an example of an enthymeme:
If you have a plasma TV, you are not poor.
The first part of the enthymeme (If you have a plasma TV) is the stated premise. The second part of the statement (you are not poor) is the conclusion. So the unstated premise is “Only rich people have plasma TVs.” The enthymeme above leads us to an invalid conclusion (people who own plasma TVs are not poor) because there are plenty of people who own plasma TVs who are poor. Let’s look at this enthymeme in a syllogistic structure:

• Major premise: People who own plasma TVs are rich (unstated above).
• Minor premise: You own a plasma TV.
• Conclusion: You are not poor.

To help you understand how induction and deduction can work together to form a solid argument, you may want to look at the United States Declaration of Independence. The first section of the Declaration contains a series of syllogisms, while the middle section is an inductive list of examples. The final section brings the first and second sections together in a compelling conclusion.

Contributors:Allen Brizee.
Summary:
This resource outlines the generally accepted structure for introductions, body paragraphs, and conclusions in an academic argument paper. Keep in mind that this resource contains guidelines and not strict rules about organization. Your structure needs to be flexible enough to meet the requirements of your purpose and audience.

Rebuttal Sections

In order to present a fair and convincing message, you may need to anticipate, research, and outline some of the common positions (arguments) that dispute your thesis. If the situation (purpose) calls for you to do this, you will present and then refute these other positions in the rebuttal section of your essay.
It is important to consider other positions because in most cases, your primary audience will be fence-sitters. Fence-sitters are people who have not decided which side of the argument to support.
People who are on your side of the argument will not need a lot of information to align with your position. People who are completely against your argument—perhaps for ethical or religious reasons—will probably never align with your position no matter how much information you provide. Therefore, the audience you should consider most important are those people who haven't decided which side of the argument they will support—the fence-sitters.
In many cases, these fence-sitters have not decided which side to align with because they see value in both positions. Therefore, to not consider opposing positions to your own in a fair manner may alienate fence-sitters when they see that you are not addressing their concerns or discussion opposing positions at all.

Organizing your rebuttal section

Following the TTEB method outlined in the Body Paragraph section, forecast all the information that will follow in the rebuttal section and then move point by point through the other positions addressing each one as you go. The outline below, adapted from Seyler's Understanding Argument, is an example of a rebuttal section from a thesis essay.
When you rebut or refute an opposing position, use the following three-part organization:
The opponent’s argument: Usually, you should not assume that your reader has read or remembered the argument you are refuting. Thus at the beginning of your paragraph, you need to state, accurately and fairly, the main points of the argument you will refute.
Your position: Next, make clear the nature of your disagreement with the argument or position you are refuting. Your position might assert, for example, that a writer has not proved his assertion because he has provided evidence that is outdated, or that the argument is filled with fallacies.
Your refutation: The specifics of your counterargument will depend upon the nature of your disagreement. If you challenge the writer’s evidence, then you must present the more recent evidence. If you challenge assumptions, then you must explain why they do not hold up. If your position is that the piece is filled with fallacies, then you must present and explain each fallacy.

Contributors:Allen Brizee.
Summary:
This resource outlines the generally accepted structure for introductions, body paragraphs, and conclusions in an academic argument paper. Keep in mind that this resource contains guidelines and not strict rules about organization. Your structure needs to be flexible enough to meet the requirements of your purpose and audience.

Conclusions

Conclusions wrap up what you have been discussing in your paper. After moving from general to specific information in the introduction and body paragraphs, your conclusion should begin pulling back into more general information that restates the main points of your argument. Conclusions may also call for action or overview future possible research. The following outline may help you conclude your paper:
In a general way,

• Restate your topic and why it is important,
• Restate your thesis/claim,
• Address opposing viewpoints and explain why readers should align with your position,
• Call for action or overview future research possibilities.

Remember that once you accomplish these tasks, unless otherwise directed by your instructor, you are finished. Done. Complete. Don't try to bring in new points or end with a whiz bang(!) conclusion or try to solve world hunger in the final sentence of your conclusion. Simplicity is best for a clear, convincing message.
The preacher's maxim is one of the most effective formulas to follow for argument papers:

1. Tell what you're going to tell them (introduction).
   
2. Tell them (body).
   
3. Tell them what you told them (conclusion).
   

ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY

 |Printable version|

Definition	Refuting opposing arguments
Organization	Language
Supporting our ideas	Sample argumentative essay

Definition: In this kind of essay, we not only give information but also present an argument with the PROS (supporting ideas) and CONS (opposing ideas) of an argumentative issue. We should clearly take our stand and write as if we are trying to persuade an opposing audience to adopt new beliefs or behavior. The primary objective is to persuade people to change beliefs that many of them do not want to change.

Choosing an argumentative topic is not an easy task. The topic should be such that

• it should be narrowed down

X Marijuana should be considered illegal. (Not a good topic because it is too general. In some medical cases, marijuana is prescribed by the doctors and the patients are encouraged to use it in case of suffering from too much pain)

√ Selling and using marijuana in public places should be considered illegal.

• it should contain an argument

X We should decide whether we want a bicycle or a car. (our stand is not clear: do we support having bicycles or cars?)

√ If we are under the age of 30 and want a healthy life, we should definitely get a bicycle instead of a car.

X Are you one of those who thinks cheating is not good for students? (a question cannot be an argument)

√ Cheating helps students learn.

X Considering its geological position, Turkey has an important geopolitical role in the EU. (facts cannot be arguments)

√ Considering its geopolitical role, we can clearly say that the EU cannot be without Turkey.

• it should be a topic that can be adequately supported (with statistics, outside source citations, etc.)

X I feel that writing an argumentative essay is definitely a challenging task. (feelings cannot be supported; we cannot persuade other people)

If you believe that you can find enough evidence to support your idea and refute others effectively, you can choose challenging topics as well. You can enjoy writing about such topics:

        Cheating is beneficial for students.

         Murat 124 is a very good choice for conscientious drivers.

         Stress is good for the human body.

        Polygamy is quite natural.

         For women, there is no need for men.

Organization: All argumentative topics have PROs and CONs. Before starting writing, it is imperative to make a list of these ideas and choose the most suitable ones among them  for supporting and refuting.

       

There are three possible organization patterns:    

Pattern 1:

        Thesis statement:

PRO idea 1

        PRO idea 2

        CON(s) + Refutation(s)

        Conclusion

Pattern 2:

Thesis statement:

        CON(s) + Refutation(s)

        PRO idea 1

        PRO idea 2

       

        Conclusion

Pattern 3:

        Thesis statement:

        CON idea 1                ----->        Refutation

        CON idea 2                ----->        Refutation

        CON idea 3                ----->        Refutation

        Conclusion

The sample essay has been written according to the third pattern.

Thesis: Do Reiki instead of taking medicine.

	Counter arguments		Refutation
1.	People should trust medicine since it is effective and scientifically proven.	----->	Reiki is also scientifically proven and does not have side effects. (refutation method: insufficient claim)
2.	Serious illnesses such as HIV/AIDS and cancer cannot be treated without medicine.	----->	Medicine also cannot treat serious illnesses if not diagnosed at an early stage. (refutation method: opponents are partially correct)
3.	Reiki, like alternative healing methods, requires a lot of time.	----->	Reiki requires less time if done regularly. (refutation method: opponents are completely wrong)

Supporting our ideas: This is the most important part when persuading others. We are asking some people to change their beliefs or actions. We should be supporting our ideas with such facts, statistics and/or authorities that there should not be room for any doubts. Here are some faulty supports we should avoid:

Thesis: Leaving the university and starting to work is good for the adolescent because …

• Feelings, emotional arguments (… it makes one feel much better.)
• Irrelevant examples (wandering off the topic) (… he would then be able to take his girlfriend to expensive restaurants.)
• Oversimplification (… only then would he understand what it means to be an adult.)
• Hasty generalizations (... it is a widely known fact that all adolescents look forward to earning money.)
• Unreliable, even false outside sources (… according to www.doubtme.com, 80% of working men wish they quit school when they were at university and started working at an earlier age.)

    

For more mistakes in the logic of arguments, see Fallacies.   

Refuting opposing arguments: Before we start saying that the opponents are wrong, we should specify their opposing ideas. Otherwise, it would be like hitting the other person with eyes closed. We should see clearly what we are hitting and be prepared beforehand so that he cannot hit us back. We can do this by knowing what we are refuting.

e.g. X Some people may say that adolescents should not leave university education; however, they are wrong. (what they say is not wrong. Maybe their supporting idea is wrong /irrelevant /insufficient. We should state their supporting idea specifically to be able to refute it.)

√ Some people may say that adolescents should not leave university education because they are not physically and psychologically mature enough to cope with the problems of the real world. However, they forget one fact: adolescents can vote or start driving at the age of 18 (in some countries even before that age!), which proves that they are considered physically and psychologically mature at that age.

Language: Signposts gain importance in the argumentative essay. They enable the readers to follow our arguments easily.

When pointing out opposing arguments (CONs):

Opponents of this idea claim / maintain that …            

Those who disagree / are against these ideas may say / assert that …

Some people may disagree with this idea.

When stating specifically why they think like that:

The put forward this idea because …

They claim that … since …

Reaching the turning point:

However,

but

On the other hand,

When refuting the opposing idea, we may use the following strategies:

• compromise but prove that their argument is not powerful enough:

They have a point in thinking like that.

To a certain extent they are right.

• completely disagree:

After seeing this evidence, there is no way we can agree with what they say.

• say that their argument is irrelevant to the topic:

What we are discussing here is not what they are trying to prove.

Their argument is irrelevant.

Sample argumentative essay:

HEALTH AND HEALING AT YOUR FINGERTIPS

Throw out the bottles and boxes of drugs in your house. A new theory suggests that medicine could be bad for your health, which should at least come as good news to people who cannot afford to buy expensive medicine. However, it is a blow to the medicine industry, and an even bigger blow to our confidence in the progress of science. This new theory argues that healing is at our fingertips: we can be healthy by doing Reiki on a regular basis.

Supporters of medical treatment argue that medicine should be trusted since it is effective and scientifically proven. They say that there is no need for spiritual methods such as Reiki, Yoga, Tai Chi. These waste our time, something which is quite precious in our material world. There is medicine that can kill our pain, x-rays that show us our fractured bones or MRI that scans our brain for tumors. We must admit that these methods are very effective in the examples that they provide. However, there are some “every day complaints” such as back pains, headaches, insomnia, which are treated currently with medicine. When you have a headache, you take an Aspirin, or Vermidon, when you cannot sleep, you take Xanax without thinking of the side effects of these. When you use these pills for a long period, you become addicted to them; you cannot sleep without them. We pay huge amounts of money and become addicted instead of getting better. How about a safer and more economical way of healing? When doing Reiki to yourself, you do not need anything except your energy so it is very economical. As for its history, it was discovered in Japan in the early 1900s and its popularity has spread particularly throughout America and Western Europe.  In quantum physics, energy is recognized as the fundamental substance of which the universe is composed. Reiki depends on the energy within our bodies. It is a simple and effective way of restoring the energy flow. There are no side effects and it is scientifically explained.

Opponents of alternative healing methods also claim that serious illnesses such as HIV/AIDS and cancer cannot be treated without drugs. They think so because these patients spend the rest of their lives in the hospital taking medicine. How can Reiki make these people healthy again? It is very unfortunate that these patients have to live in the hospital losing their hair because of chemotherapy, losing weight because of the side effects of the medicine they take. Actually, it is common knowledge that except for when the cancer is diagnosed at an early stage, drugs also cannot treat AIDS or cancer. Most of the medicine these patients use are to ease their pain and their sufferings because of the medical treatment they undergo. Instead of drugs which are expensive and have many side effects, you can use your energy to overcome the hardships of life, find an emotional balance, leave the stress of everyday life and let go of the everyday worries. Most of the chronic conditions such as eczema or migraine are known to have causes such as poor diet and stress. Deep-rooted anger or other strong emotions can contribute to viral infections as well. Since balancing our emotions and controlling our thoughts are very important for our well-being, we should definitely start learning Reiki and avoid illnesses before it is too late.   

Some people may still maintain that in our material world, everything depends on time. It is even “lacking time” that causes much of the stress that leads to the illnesses we mentioned. How would it be possible to find time to do Reiki to ourselves and the people around us when we cannot even find time to go to the theater? This is one good thing about Reiki; it does not require more than 15 minutes of our time. There is no need for changing clothes or special equipment. It is a wonderfully simple healing art, an effective method of relaxation and stress-relief. Most important of all, it is less time consuming than medicine if we think of all the time we spend taking medicine for some complaints and taking some more for the side effects as well.

Having said these, resistance to Reiki would be quite illogical. Reiki is natural and drug-free. What is more, it is easy to learn by anyone, regardless of age and experience. It can be used anywhere, anytime. It also enhances physical, mental, emotional and spiritual well-being and the benefits last a lifetime. It is definitely high time to get away from the drug boxes we store in our drug cabinet!

_________________________________________________________________________

Written by Oya Ozagac, September 2004

Bicara tentang English © BBC Belajar Bahasa InggrisHalaman 1 dari 5bbclearningenglish.comBBC Belajar Bahasa InggrisBicara tentang Bahasa InggrisMendengarkan AkademikBagian 5 - Kuliah: frase penandaProgram ini pertama kali disiarkan pada tahun 2001.Ini bukan transkrip yang akurat kata demi kata dari program.PENYIAR:Sudah waktunya untuk Mendengarkan Akademik - seri bagi siswa di universitas berbahasa Inggris. Untuklebih pada struktur kuliah, bergabung dengan Susan Fearn dan anggota kelas World Service dari2001.Susan: Selama seri kita memasuki dunia pendidikan lebih lanjut untuk fokus padabeberapa masalah linguistik yang dialami di sana dan di kita program kali inikunjungi University College London. Hari ini kita melihat "penanda frase" - pentingkosa kata yang akan membantu Anda memprediksi dan memahami perkembangan bertahapargumen dosen.Dan kami sudah mengirim reporter kami ke University College London, di mana ia bergabungmahasiswa dalam kuliah tentang Akar bahasa Inggris. Dia akan membuat mereka - danAnda - tugas pemahaman untuk membantu mengembangkan keterampilan mendengarkan.Seperti yang telah kita katakan sebelumnya, itu ide yang baik untuk mencoba dan memprediksi isi kuliahdari judulnya. Reporter Julia Adamson meminta beberapa siswa diUniversity College untuk melakukan hal itu sebelum kuliah mereka mulai. Dia berbicara kepada Sara,Bicara tentang English © BBC Belajar Bahasa InggrisHalaman 2 dari 5bbclearningenglish.comyang berasal dari Swedia, Denis, seorang mahasiswa dari Belarus dan pertama, Rabia Bourkiza.CLIP: Julia mewawancarai siswaAku Rabia Bourkiza Saya dari Aljazair. Saat ini saya sedang menunggu kuliah dan ceramahakan tentang Akar bahasa Inggris. Saya pikir ini akan menjadi tentang di mana bahasa Inggris datangdari, dan apa yang kita berbicara berasal.Bisakah Anda ceritakan tentang kuliah Anda tentang untuk masuk ke dalam, Sara?Tentu saja. Ini tentang 'Roots of English "Saya pikir ini tentang linguistik dan di mana bahasaberasal dari dan juga tentang kata-kata tertentu arti dari kata-kata dan bagaimana Inggrisbahasa telah dikembangkan selama berabad-abad.Apakah Anda tahu apa subjek kuliah ini?Ini akan menjadi, saya pikir, tentang bagaimana bahasa ... di mana bahasa itu berasal, tentanglinguistik mungkin, dan mungkin saja beberapa penggunaan tata bahasa - bagaimana hal itu terjadi dan bagaimana itu lahir.Susan: Judul ceramah membantu para siswa untuk membuat prediksi tentangkonten. Ketiganya berharap untuk mendengar dosen Don Bukit menggambarkan asal-usulBahasa Inggris - di mana itu berasal dan bagaimana ia telah dikembangkan.CLIP: DosenNah bicara hari ini adalah tentang bahasa Inggris. Saya akan mulai dengan menjelaskan akar dari bahasa Inggris, orang-orang ...Susan: Sebelum kita kembali ke teater kuliah, inilah kesempatan bagi Anda untuk melakukan beberapamendengarkan praktek. Anda akan mendengar teks pengantar untuk kuliah Don Hilldan saya ingin Anda untuk mencoba mengidentifikasi isi utama pembicaraan. Apakah duasubyek utama yang Don Hill akan membahas? Jika Anda punya pena, mengapa tidakcatat sebagai judul sehingga Anda dapat mulai membuat beberapa catatan.Bicara tentang English © BBC Belajar Bahasa InggrisHalaman 3 dari 5bbclearningenglish.comCLIP: DosenNah bicara hari ini adalah tentang bahasa Inggris. Saya akan mulai dengan menjelaskan akar dari bahasa Inggris, orang-orang yangberbicara berbagai bahasa atau dialek yang bahasa Inggris telah datang. Lalu pergi keregister - yang merupakan gaya bahasa Inggris. Saya akan menyederhanakan yang sangat banyak dan berbicara tentang dua registeratau gaya pada khususnya. Saya kemudian akan menimbulkan pertanyaan apakah satu mendaftar lebih baik dari yang laindan memberikan alasan untuk berpikir bahwa tidak ada jawaban sederhana untuk pertanyaan itu dan kemudian aku akan meringkasdan yang akan itu.OK - jadi akar bahasa Inggris untuk memulai dengan. Sekarang, mengapa bahasa Inggris menjadi bahasa dunia?Susan: Nah, Anda dapat membandingkan jawaban Anda dengan Sara, salah satu siswa Julia berbicarauntuk setelah kuliah.CLIP: Julia mewawancarai siswaSara, bisa Anda ceritakan apa kuliah itu tentang?Tentu saja. Kuliah itu tentang akar dari bahasa Inggris dan juga tentang register bahasa Inggris, danyang berarti akar kebanyakan tentang perspektif sejarah - tentang bagaimana Inggris adalahmenginvasi tentang orang-orang yang berbeda - sehingga sebagian besar tentang sejarah. Dan juga register adalah tentangtingkat yang lebih tinggi & lebih rendah dari bahasa Inggris; bagaimana orang menggunakan bahasa Inggris.Susan: Sara menjelaskan bahwa subjek utama kuliah adalah akar dari bahasa Inggris, yangasal-usul sejarah, dan register bahasa Inggris - yang lebih tinggi dan register rendah.Don Bukit mengatakan kepada kami lagi. Ketika Anda mendengarkan Anda bisa menambahkan rincian lainnya ke catatan Anda.CLIP: DosenNah bicara hari ini adalah tentang bahasa Inggris. Saya akan mulai dengan menjelaskan akar dari bahasa Inggris, orang-orang yangberbicara berbagai bahasa atau dialek yang bahasa Inggris telah datang. Lalu pergi keBicara tentang English © BBC Belajar Bahasa InggrisHalaman 4 dari 5bbclearningenglish.comregister - yang merupakan gaya bahasa Inggris. Saya akan menyederhanakan yang sangat banyak dan berbicara tentang dua registeratau gaya pada khususnya. Saya kemudian akan menimbulkan pertanyaan apakah satu mendaftar lebih baik dari yang laindan memberikan alasan untuk berpikir bahwa tidak ada jawaban sederhana untuk pertanyaan itu dan kemudian aku akan meringkasdan yang akan itu.OK - jadi akar bahasa Inggris untuk memulai dengan. Sekarang, mengapa bahasa Inggris menjadi bahasa dunia?Susan: Dosen menggunakan menghubungkan kata-kata dan frase, kadang-kadang digambarkan sebagai penandafrasa, atau penanda semantik.CLIP: Christine ReevesDengan penanda semantik saya maksud menggunakan kata-kata yang mengungkapkan hubungan antara kalimat. Itubisa menjadi kata seperti 'karena' yang menunjukkan kepada Anda bahwa apa yang akan mengikuti adalah alasan.Susan: Chris Reeves mengajar di Bell Norwich, sebuah sekolah bahasa di Timur Inggris.CLIP: Christine ReevesJika ia mengatakan 'jadi' maka Anda tahu bahwa Anda akan mengharapkan hasilnya. Ini bisa menjadi kontras, jadi jikaAnda mendengarkan kata-kata untuk kontras itu akan menjadi kata seperti 'meskipun', 'tetap' atau'Namun'. Jika dia menggunakan penanda semantik seperti 'apalagi', 'di samping', maka Anda tahu dia akanuntuk membuat titik lain dan itu bisa menjadi titik utama lain - sehingga sangat penting untuk mendengarkanorang-orang semacam kata-kata ketika Anda mendengarkan ceramah.Susan: Chris Reeves percaya bahwa kesadaran penanda semantik dapat membantu Anda untukikuti kuliah. Pembicara menggunakan frase penanda untuk memperkenalkan ide-ide yang kontras,poin tambahan, sebab dan akibat atau hasil. Anda mungkin terbiasa melihat iniBicara tentang English © BBC Belajar Bahasa InggrisHalaman 5 dari 5bbclearningenglish.comfrase dalam buku-buku, tetapi mengakui mereka dalam kuliah diucapkan bisa rumit -terutama jika dosen berbicara sangat cepat. Kesadaran frase penanda sepertiini dapat membantu untuk memahami kuliah, sebagai salah satu Pusat Bahasasiswa menjelaskan kepada reporter kami.CLIP: Julia mewawancarai siswa DenisBeberapa frasa yang kita dengar adalah 'di satu sisi, di sisi lain', 'dalam kesimpulan', semacam inihal.Dan kenapa begitu berguna, mengetahui frase tersebut?Karena ini adalah bagaimana Anda membuat pidato Anda lebih cerah dan lebih dimengerti bagi para siswa.Ini lebih masuk akal bagi mereka - itu bukan hanya teks, teks akademik, itu membuatnya lebih umum untukmereka; lebih dimengerti.PENYIAR:Dan itu membawa kita pada akhir program ini, di mana kita telah berfokus pada frase penandadan menyarankan bahwa kesadaran berbagai ungkapan-ungkapan yang menghubungkan dapat membantu Anda.

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BBC Learning English

Talk about English

Academic Listening

Part 5 - Lectures: marker phrases

This programme was first broadcast in 2001.

This is not an accurate word-for-word transcript of the programme.

ANNOUNCER:

It’s time for Academic Listening - a series for students at English-speaking universities. For

more on the structure of a lecture, join Susan Fearn and members of the World Service class of

2001.

Susan: During the series we’re entering the world of further education to focus on

some of the linguistic problems experienced there and in today's programme we

visit University College London. Today we look at “marker phrases” - essential

vocabulary that will help you predict and understand the gradual development

of the lecturer's argument.

And we’ve sent our reporter to University College London, where she joins

students in a lecture about the Roots of English. She’ll be setting them - and

you - a comprehension task to help develop listening skills.

As we’ve said before, it’s a good idea to try and predict the content of a lecture

from its title. Our reporter Julia Adamson asked some of the students at

University College to do just that before their lecture began. She spoke to Sara,

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who's from Sweden, Denis, a student from Belarus and first, Rabia Bourkiza.

CLIP: Julia interviewing students

I'm Rabia Bourkiza I'm from Algeria. At the moment I'm waiting for the lecture and the lecture

will be about the Roots of English. I think this will be about where English language comes

from, and what we are speaking come from.

Can you tell me about the lecture you're about to go into, Sara?

Of course. It's about 'Roots of English' I think it's about linguistics and where language is

coming from and also about certain words the meaning of the words and how the English

language has developed during the centuries.

Do you know what the subject of the lecture is?

It's going to be, I think, about how the language… where the language came from, about

linguistics maybe, and just maybe some grammar use - how it came and how it was born.

Susan: The title of the lecture helped those students to make predictions about the

content. All three expect to hear lecturer Don Hill describe the origins of the

English language - where it’s come from and how it has developed.

CLIP: Lecturer

Well today's talk is about English. I'll start by describing the roots of English, the people …

Susan: Before we return to the lecture theatre, here's a chance for you to do some

listening practice. You'll hear the text of the introduction to Don Hill's lecture

and I'd like you to try to identify the key content of the talk. What are the two

main subjects that Don Hill is going to discuss ? If you’ve got a pen, why not

write these down as headings so you can start making some notes.

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CLIP: Lecturer

Well today's talk is about English. I'll start by describing the roots of English, the people who

spoke the various languages or dialects from which English has come. Then go onto the

registers - that is the styles of English. I'll simplify that very much and talk about two registers

or styles in particular. I'll then raise the question whether one register is better than the other

and give reasons for thinking that there's no simple answer to that question and then I'll sum up

and that will be it.

OK - so the roots of English to start with. Now, why has English become a world language?

Susan: Well, you can compare your answers with Sara, one of the students Julia spoke

to after the lecture.

CLIP: Julia interviewing students

Sara, can you tell me what the lecture was about ?

Of course. The lecture was about roots of English and also about the registers of English, and

that means the roots were mostly about the historical perspective - about how England was

invaded about different people - so mostly about the historical. And also the register is about

the higher & lower level of English; how people use the English language.

Susan: Sara explains that the main subjects of the lecture were the roots of English, its

historical origins, and the registers of English - a higher and a lower register.

Don Hill told us more. As you listen you could add more details to your notes.

CLIP: Lecturer

Well today's talk is about English. I'll start by describing the roots of English, the people who

spoke the various languages or dialects from which English has come. Then go onto the

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registers - that is the styles of English. I'll simplify that very much and talk about two registers

or styles in particular. I'll then raise the question whether one register is better than the other

and give reasons for thinking that there's no simple answer to that question and then I'll sum up

and that will be it.

OK - so the roots of English to start with. Now, why has English become a world language?

Susan: Lecturers use linking words and phrases, sometimes described as marker

phrases, or semantic markers.

CLIP: Christine Reeves

By semantic markers I mean using words which express the relationship between sentences. It

could be a word like 'because' which indicates to you that what is going to follow is a reason.

Susan: Chris Reeves teaches at Bell Norwich, a language school in Eastern England.

CLIP: Christine Reeves

If he says 'so' then you know that you're going to expect the result. It could be a contrast, so if

you're listening for contrasting words it would be a word like 'although', 'nevertheless' or

'however'. If he uses semantic markers like 'moreover', 'in addition', then you know he's going

to make another point and it could be another main point - so it's very important to listen for

those kind of words when you're listening to a lecture.

Susan: Chris Reeves believes that awareness of semantic markers can help you to

follow a lecture. Speakers use marker phrases to introduce contrasting ideas,

additional points, cause and effect or result. You might be used to seeing these

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phrases in books, but recognising them in a spoken lecture can be tricky -

especially if the lecturer speaks very quickly. Awareness of marker phrases like

these can be helpful for understanding lectures, as one of the Language Centre

students explained to our reporter.

CLIP: Julia interviewing student Denis

Some of the phrases we hear are 'on the one hand, on the other hand ' , 'in conclusion', this kind

of stuff.

And why is that useful, knowing those phrases ?

Because this is how you make your speech brighter and more understandable for the students.

It makes more sense for them - it's not just the text, academic text, it makes it more general for

them; more understandable.

ANNOUNCER:

And that brings us to the end of this programme, in which we’ve focused on marker phrases

and suggested that an awareness of a wide range of these linking phrases can help you.